Notes

Meaning of Signals

Court Abbreviations

Miscellaneous

• [no signal] = Cited authority (i) directly states the proposition, (ii) identifies the source of a quotation, or (iii) identifies an authority referred to in the text. Use no signal, for example, when directly quoting an authority or when restating numerical data from an authority.
• E.g., = Cited authority states the proposition; other authorities also state the proposition, but citation to them would not be helpful or is not necessary. “E.g.” may also by used in combination with other signals, preceded by a comma: [See, e.g.,] [But see, e.g.,]
• Accord = Commonly used when two or more sources state or clearly support the proposition, but the text quotes or refers to only one; the other sources are then introduced by “accord.” Similarly, the law of one jurisdiction may be cited as being in accord with the law of another.
• See = Cited authority clearly supports the proposition. “See” is used instead of “[no signal]” when the proposition is not directly stated by the cited authority but obviously follows from it; there is an inferential step between the authority cited and the proposition it supports.
• See also = Cited authority constitutes additional source material that supports the proposition. “See also” is commonly used to cite an authority supporting a proposition when authorities that state or directly support the proposition already have been cited or discussed. Parentheticals are encouraged.
• See generally = Cited authority presents helpful background material related to the proposition. Parentheticals are encouraged.
• Cf. = Cited authority supports a proposition different from the main proposition but sufficiently analogous to lend support. Literally, “Cf.” means “compare.” The citation’s relevance will usually be clear to the reader only if it is explained. Parentheticals are strongly recommended.
• Compare ... [and] ... with ... [and] ... = Comparison of the authorities cited will offer support for or illustrate the proposition. When used as a signal, "compare" must be used in conjunction with "with". Parentheticals for each authority are strongly recommended.
• Contra = Cited authority directly states the contrary of the proposition. "Contra" is used where "no signal" would be used for support.
• But see = Cited authority clearly supports a proposition contrary to the main proposition. "But see" is used where "see" would be used for support.
• But cf. = Cited authority supports a proposition analogous to the contrary of the main proposition. Parentheticals are strongly recommended.

• Supreme Court   =   U.S.


• First Circuit   =   1st Cir.
• Second Circuit   =   2d Cir.
• Third Circuit   =   3d Cir.
• Fourth Circuit   =   4th Cir.
• Fifth Circuit   =   5th Cir.
• Sixth Circuit   =   6th Cir.
• Seventh Circuit   =   7th Cir.
• Eighth Circuit   =   8th Cir.
• Ninth Circuit   =   9th Cir.
• Tenth Circuit   =   10th Cir.
• Eleventh Circuit   =   11th Cir.
• D.C. Circuit   =   D.C. Cir.
• Federal Circuit   =   Fed. Cir.

For district court cases, give the district but not the division.
• Middle District of Alabama
  =  M.D. Ala.
• Northern District of Alabama
  =  N.D. Ala.
• Southern District of Alabama
  =  S.D. Ala.
• District of Alaska
  =  D. Alaska
• District of Arizona
  =  D. Ariz.
• Eastern District of Arkansas
  =  E.D. Ark.
• Western District of Arkansas
  =  W.D. Ark.
• Central District of California
  =  C.D. Cal.
• Eastern District of California
  =  E.D. Cal.
• Northern District of California
  =  N.D. Cal.
• Southern District of California
  =  S.D. Cal.
• District of the Canal Zone
  =  D.C.Z. (The D.C.Z. ceased to exist on 3/31/1982)
• District of Colorado
  =  D. Colo.
• District of Connecticut
  =  D. Conn.
• District of Delaware
  =  D. Del.
• District of D.C.
  =  D.D.C.
• Middle District of Florida
  =  M.D. Fla.
• Northern District of Florida
  =  N.D. Fla.
• Southern District of Florida
  =  S.D. Fla.
• Middle District of Georgia
  =  M.D. Ga.
• Northern District of Georgia
  =  N.D. Ga.
• Southern District of Georgia
  =  S.D. Ga.
• District of Guam
  =  D. Guam
• District of Hawaii
  =  D. Haw.
• District of Idaho
  =  D. Idaho
• Central District of Illinois
  =  C.D. Ill.
• Northern District of Illinois
  =  N.D. Ill.
• Southern District of Illinois
  =  S.D. Ill.
• Northern District of Indiana
  =  N.D. Ind.
• Southern District of Indiana
  =  S.D. Ind.
• Northern District of Iowa
  =  N.D. Iowa
• Southern District of Iowa
  =  S.D. Iowa
• District of Kansas
  =  D. Kan.
• Eastern District of Kentucky
  =  E.D. Ky.
• Western District of Kentucky
  =  W.D. Ky.
• Eastern District of Louisiana
  =  E.D. La.
• Middle District of Louisiana
  =  M.D. La.
• Western District of Louisiana
  =  W.D. La.
• District of Maine
  =  D. Me.
• District of Maryland
  =  D. Md.
• District of Massachusetts
  =  D. Mass.
• Eastern District of Michigan
  =  E.D. Mich.
• Western District of Michigan
  =  W.D. Mich.
• District of Minnesota
  =  D. Minn.
• Northern District of Mississippi
  =  N.D. Miss.
• Southern District of Mississippi
  =  S.D. Miss.
• Eastern District of Missouri
  =  E.D. Mo.
• Western District of Missouri
  =  W.D. Mo.
• District of Montana
  =  D. Mont.
• District of Nebraska
  =  D. Neb.
• District of Nevada
  =  D. Nev.
• District of New Hampshire
  =  D.N.H.
• District of New Jersey
  =  D.N.J.
• District of New Mexico
  =  D.N.M.
• Eastern District of New York
  =  E.D.N.Y.
• Northern District of New York
  =  N.D.N.Y.
• Southern District of New York
  =  S.D.N.Y.
• Western District of New York
  =  W.D.N.Y.
• Eastern District of North Carolina
  =  E.D.N.C.
• Middle District of North Carolina
  =  M.D.N.C.
• Western District of North Carolina
  =  W.D.N.C.
• District of North Dakota
  =  D.N.D.
• District of the Northern Mariana Islands
  =  D.N. Mar. Is.
• Northern District of Ohio
  =  N.D. Ohio
• Southern District of Ohio
  =  S.D. Ohio
• Eastern District of Oklahoma
  =  E.D. Okla.
• Northern District of Oklahoma
  =  N.D. Okla.
• Western District of Oklahoma
  =  W.D. Okla.
• District of Oregon
  =  D. Or.
• Eastern District of Pennsylvania
  =  E.D. Pa.
• Middle District of Pennsylvania
  =  M.D. Pa.
• Western District of Pennsylvania
  =  W.D. Pa.
• District of Puerto Rico
  =  D.P.R.
• District of Rhode Island
  =  D.R.I.
• District of South Carolina
  =  D.S.C.
• District of South Dakota
  =  D.S.D.
• Eastern District of Tennessee
  =  E.D. Tenn.
• Middle District of Tennessee
  =  M.D. Tenn.
• Western District of Tennessee
  =  W.D. Tenn.
• Eastern District of Texas
  =  E.D. Tex.
• Northern District of Texas
  =  N.D. Tex.
• Southern District of Texas
  =  S.D. Tex.
• Western District of Texas
  =  W.D. Tex.
• District of Utah
  =  D. Utah
• District of Vermont
  =  D. Vt.
• Eastern District of Virginia
  =  E.D. Va.
• Western District of Virginia
  =  W.D. Va.
• District of the Virgin Islands
  =  D.V.I.
• Eastern District of Washington
  =  E.D. Wash.
• Western District of Washington
  =  W.D. Wash.
• Northern District of West Virginia
  =  N.D.W. Va.
• Southern District of West Virginia
  =  S.D.W. Va.
• Eastern District of Wisconsin
  =  E.D. Wis.
• Western District of Wisconsin
  =  W.D. Wis.
• District of Wyoming
  =  D. Wyo.

• Federal Reporter
  =    F.    F.2d    F.3d
• Federal Appendix
  =    F.App'x
• Federal Supplement
  =    F. Supp.    F. Supp. 2d    F. Supp. 3d
• United States Patents Quarterly
  =    U.S.P.Q.    U.S.P.Q.2d

• January   =   Jan.
• February   =   Feb.
• March   =   Mar.
• April   =   Apr.
• May   =   May
• June   =   June
• July   =   July
• August   =   Aug.
• September   =   Sept.
• October   =   Oct.
• November   =   Nov.
• December   =   Dec.

• Use parentheticals, as needed, to explain the relevance of a particular authority. Recommended when the relevance of a cited authority might not otherwise be clear to the reader.
• Explanatory parenthetical phrases not directly quoting the authority usually begin with a present participle and should never begin with a capital letter. (arguing that the author and the two-tier theory of federal juristdiction are still viable.)
• When a complete participial phrase is unnecessary in context, a shorter parenthetical may be substituted. [authority 1] (health-related water quality) [authority 2] (conservation of protected areas).
• If, however, the parenthetical information quotes one or more full sentences or a portion of material that reads as a full sentence, it should begin with a capital letter and include appropriate closing punctuation. ("[T]here are more mayors of Rockville, Maryland, than there are mayors of Detroit."). NOT: (explaining that "[w]e are a legalized culture. If law is where racism is, then thaw is where we must confront it . . . .").
• When directly quoting only a short phrase from an authority: (explaining that the final judgment rule reduces the potential for parties to "clog the courts" with a seccession of time-consuiming appeals).
• alteration in original:
• emphasis added:
• footnote omitted:
• citations omitted:
• quoting another source:
• citing another source:
• When a citation requires multiple parentheticals, place them in the following order: (alteration in original) (emphasis added) (footnote omitted) (citations omitted) (quoting another source) (citing another source)